Archaeological findings provide proof that, while primitive mankind used conventional weapons such as axes and clubs, and later swords, they probably sought more subtle, destructive means of causing death—something that could be achieved through poison.[2] Grooves for storing or holding poisons such as tubocurarine have been found in their hunting weapons and tools, showing that early humans had discovered poisons of varying potency and been applying them to their weapons.[2] Some speculate that this use and existence of these strange and noxious substances would have been kept within the more important and higher-ranked members of a tribe or clan, and were seen as emblems of a greater power. This may have also given birth to the stereotypical 'medicine man' or 'witch doctor'.[2]
The discovery of poisons had both advantages and disadvantages in probably every civilisation in which it was discovered. The use of poisons for homicide and assassination also caused the need for antidotes for these poisons, and soon after the potential of the poison was realised, the search for ways to detract from or reverse its power began.
Once the use and danger of poison was realized, it became apparent that something had to be done. Mithridates, King of Pontos (ancient Greece, now modern Turkey) from around 114-63 BC, lived in constant fear of being assassinated by the use of poison, and so became a hard-working pioneer in the search for a cure for poisons.[2] In his position of power, he was able to test poisons on criminals facing execution, and then to test if there was a possible antidote. So paranoid was he that he administered daily amounts of poisons in an attempt to make himself immune to as many poisons as he could.[2]
Eventually, he discovered a formula that combined small portions of dozens of the best-known herbal remedies of the time, which he named 'Mithridatium'.[2] This was kept totally secret until the invasion of Pompey, who was able to take it back to Rome. Pliny the Younger describes over 7000 different poisons. One he describes as:
“
The blood of a duck found in a certain district of Pontus, which was supposed to live on poisonous food, and the blood of this duck was afterwards used in the preparation of the Mithridatum, because it fed on poisonous plants and suffered no harm.[2]
”
After being defeated by Pompey, Mithridates' antidote prescriptions and notes of medicinal plants were taken by the Romans and translated into Latin.[3]
Indian surgeon Sushruta defined the stages of slow poisoning and the remedies of slow poisoning. He also mentions antidotes and the use of traditional substances to counter the effects of poisoning.[4]
[edit] In ancient mythology
References to poison or poison-like substances are present in the mythological canon of many ancient civilizations and up to the almost-universal 'death' of mythological beliefs.
Some of the first mythological depictions of the use of poisons come from translations of ancient, Mesopotamian Sumerian texts, in which a being named 'Gula' is mentioned as 'the mistress of spells and witchcraft'. These texts have been dated to c. 4500 BC;[2] a translated piece of text follows:
“
Gula, the woman, the mighty one, the prince of all womenHis seed with a poison not curableWithout issue; in his body may she placeAll the days of his life,Blood and pus like water may he pour forth.[5]
”
The Rigveda mentions visha, which is Sanskrit for poison.[6] References are also made in hymns to poison liquids that produce ecstasy.[7]
In the Puranic legend mention of poison is made during the mythological process of churning the cosmic ocean, before the drink of immortality is won, and thus it symbolizes the unavoidable phenomenon of death within the samsara realm of Maya.[8]
In Hindu mythology, only Shiva is capable of drinking poison without harm and he is the popular Hindu symbol of spiritual progress through Yoga.[8]
In Greek mythology, Medea attempted to poison Theseus with a cup of wine poisoned with wolfsbane. However, his father Aegeus interceded when he discerned his identity, knocking the cup out of his hand and sending Medea away.[9]
[edit] India
Some economic concepts and ideas find mention in the Buddhist literature during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Among these the economic enterprise and price and taxation are the main issues discussed in this literature. Some specific economic activities such as the sale of meat, living creatures, poison, arms and armaments were forbidden.[10]
Poisoned weapons were used in ancient India.[11] Tactics related to war in ancient India have references to poison. A verse in Sanskrit is given below:
Jalam visravayet sarmavamavisravyam ca dusayet.
Waters of wells were to be mixed with poison and thus polluted.[11]
Chānakya (c. 350-283 BC), also known as Kautilya, was adviser and prime minister[12] to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta (c. 340-293 BC). Kautilya suggests employing means such as seduction, secret use of weapons, poison, etc.[13] Kautilya urged detailed precautions against assassination - tasters for food, elaborate ways to detect poison.[14] Death penalty for violations of royal decrees was frequently administered through the use of poison.[15]
An example of a flint sword and spear, weapons used for hunting in ancient times.
[edit] Egypt
Unlike many civilizations, records of Egyptian knowledge and use of poisons can only be dated back to approx. 300 BCE. However, it is believed that the earliest known Egyptian pharaoh, Menes, studied the properties of poisonous plants and venoms, according to early records.[2]
Before this, however, evidence of poison-related knowledge in Egypt can be traced to the writings of an ancient Egyptian alchemist, Agathodiamon (100BC approx.), who spoke of an (unidentified) mineral that when mixed with natron produced a 'fiery poison'. He described this poison as 'disappearing in water', giving a clear solution. This 'fiery poison' may exist as the roots for some of the later poisons that were invisible when mixed with water, and indicates that such an elusive poison may have been available to some civilisations such as Egypt as early as 100 BC.[16] As to the 'fiery poison' which this alchemist had concocted, it appears that he must surely have created arsenic trioxide, the unidentified mineral having to have been either realgar or orpiment, due to the relation between the unidentified mineral and his other writings. [16]
The Egyptians are also thought to have come into knowledge about elements such as antimony, copper, crude arsenic, lead, opium, and mandrake (among others). Other such secrets were revealed in papyri. Egyptians are now thought to be the first to properly master distillation, and to manipulate the poison that can be retrieved from peach kernels.[2]
Finally, Cleopatra is said to have poisoned herself with an asp after hearing of Marc Antony's demise. Prior to her death, she was said to have sent many of her maidservants to act as guinea pigs to test different poisons, including belladonna, henbane, and the strychnine tree's seed.[17]
[edit] Rome
A bust of the Roman Emperor Nero, who used cyanide to dispose of unwanted family members
In Roman times, poisoning carried out at the dinner table or common eating or drinking area was not unheard of, or probably even uncommon, and was happening as early as 331 BC.[2] These poisonings would have been used for self-advantageous reasons in every class of the social order. The writer Livy describes the poisoning of members of the upper class and nobles of Rome, and Roman emperor Nero is known to have favored the use of poisons on his relatives, even hiring a personal poisoner. His preferred poison was, according to Livy, cyanide.[2]
His predecessor Claudius was allegedly poisoned with mushrooms or alternatively poison herbs.[18] However, accounts of the way Claudius died vary greatly. Halotus, his taster, Xenophon, his doctor, and the infamous poisoner Locusta have all been accused of possibly being the administrator of the fatal substance, but Agrippina, his final wife, is considered to be the most likely to have arranged his murder and may have even administered the poison herself. Some report that he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at his evening meal, while some say that he recovered somewhat, only to be poisoned once more by a feather dipped in poison which was pushed down his throat under the pretence of helping him to vomit,[19] or by poisoned gruel or an enema.[18] Agrippina is considered to be the most likely have had Claudius murdered, because she was ambitious for her son, Nero, and Claudius had become suspicious of her intrigues.[20]
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